In response to the need for frequent or continuous in vivo monitoring of glucose in diabetics, particularly in brittle diabetes, a range of possible in vivo glucose electrodes have been studied. The desired characteristics of these electrodes include safety, clinical accuracy and reliability, feasibility of in vivo recalibration, stability for at least one hospital shift of eight hours, small size, ease of insertion and removal, and a sufficiently fast response to allow timely intervention. The in vivo recalibration should be based upon withdrawal of a single sample of body fluid, e.g., blood, and measuring its glucose concentration. This is termed “one point calibration”.
Keys to safety are absence of leachable components, biocompatibility, and limiting of the potentially hazardous foreign matter introduced into the body to an amount that is inconsequential in a worst case failure. The clinical accuracy must be such that even when the readings are least accurate, the clinical decisions based on these be still correct. Feasibility of prompt confirmation of proper functioning of the sensors and of periodic in vivo recalibration is of essence if a physician is to allow the treatment of a patient to depend on the readings of the sensor. This one-point calibration, relying on the signal at zero glucose concentration being zero and measuring the blood glucose concentration at one point in time, along with the signal, is of essence, but has heretofore been elusive. The sensitivity must be sufficiently stable for the frequency of required in vivo recalibration to not be excessive. The sensor must be small enough to be introduced and removed with minimal discomfort to the patient and for minimal tissue damage. It is preferred that the sensor be subcutaneous and that it be inserted and removed by the patient or by staff in a physician's office. Finally, its response time must be fast enough so that corrective measures, when needed, can be timely.
In response to some of these needs, needle type and other subcutaneous amperometric sensors were considered. The majority of these utilized platinum-iridium, or platinum black to electrooxidize H2O2 generated by the glucose oxidase (GOX) catalyzed reaction of glucose and oxygen. In these sensors, the GOX was usually in large excess and immobilized, often by crosslinking with albumin and glutaraldehyde. To exclude electrooxidizable interferants, membranes of cellulose acetate and sulfonated polymers including Nafion™ were used. Particular attention was paid to the exclusion of the most common electrooxidizable interferants: ascorbate, urate and acetaminophen. Also to cope with the interferants, two-electrode differential measurements were used, one electrode being sensitive to glucose and electrooxidizable interferants and the other only to interferants. One strategy for overcoming the problem of interferants, applicable also to the present invention, involves their preoxidation. Another strategy involves shifting, through chemical changes, the redox potential of the polymer in the sensing layer to more reducing potentials. When the redox potential of the polymer is in the region between about −0.15 V and +0.15 V versus the standard calomel electrode (SCE), and the electrodes are poised in their in vivo operation between about −0.10 and +0.25 V, the rate of electrooxidation of interferants such as ascorbate, urate, and acetaminophen is very slow relative to that of glucose through its physiological concentration range. Thus, also the currents from electrooxidation of interferants are small relative to those of glucose.
To make the electrodes more biocompatible, hydrophilic polyurethanes, poly(vinyl alcohol) and polyHEMA membranes have been used.
Several researchers tested GOX-based glucose sensors in vivo and obtained acceptable results in rats, rabbits, dogs, pigs, sheep and humans. These studies validated the subcutaneous tissue as an acceptable glucose sensing site. Good correlation was observed between intravascular and subcutaneous glucose concentrations. They also demonstrated the need for in vivo sensor calibration. Another approach to in vivo glucose monitoring was based on coupling subcutaneous microdialysis with electrochemical detection. To control and adjust the linear response range, electrodes have been made glucose-diffusion limited, usually through glucose transport limiting membranes.
Diffusional mediators, through which the O2 partial pressure dependence of the signals is reduced, are leached from sensors. Such leaching introduces an unwanted chemical into the body, and also leads to loss in sensitivity, particularly in small sensors. In microsensors, in which outward diffuision of the mediator is radial, the decline in sensitivity is rapid. This problem has been overcome in “wired” enzyme electrodes, i.e., electrodes made by connecting enzymes to electrodes through crosslinked electron-conducting redox hydrogels (“wires”). Glucose oxidase has been “wired” with polyelectrolytes having electron relaying [Os(bpy)2Cl]+/2+ redox centers in their backbones. Hydrogels were formed upon crosslinking the enzyme and its wire on electrodes. These electrodes had high current densities and operated at a potential of 0.3V vs. SCE. The electrooxidizable interferants are eliminated through peroxidase-catalyzed preoxidation in a second, nonwired, hydrogen peroxide generating layer on the “wired” enzyme electrode.